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Shinkansen

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Original synthesis to sit alongside the encyclopedia article below. Not part of Wikipedia; verify facts on Wikipedia when precision matters.

The Shinkansen, also widely known as the Bullet Train, is Japan's high-speed railway network and the world's first commercially operated high-speed rail system. Operated by five Japan Railways Group companies, it uses standard gauge tracks and exclusively provides passenger services, featuring technologies like distributed power trains, fully grade-separated tracks, and automatic train control systems to enable frequent, fast, and safe operations.

Key moments

1964-10-01The first Shinkansen line, Tōkaidō Shinkansen connecting Tokyo and Osaka, launched just before the Tokyo Olympics, marking the world's first commercial high-speed rail service
1996The 300X experimental train set a speed record of 443 km/h during tests
Expanded to 9 routes including 2 'Mini-Shinkansen' lines, linking most major cities in Japan with maximum operational speeds of 240-320 km/h

Technical and Operational Innovations

The Shinkansen pioneered key high-speed rail technologies that became global standards. Its distributed power design, unlike traditional locomotives, places motors across multiple carriages, enhancing acceleration, stability, and safety. The system's fully grade-separated tracks eliminate level crossings, while the advanced automatic train control system allows minimum headways of just 3 minutes, supporting high-frequency services that carry up to 750,000 passengers daily and 140 million annually on core routes.

Cultural and Economic Impact

As one of Japan's iconic symbols alongside cherry blossoms and Mount Fuji, the Shinkansen transformed intercity travel and regional development. It created 4-hour economic zones connecting major urban centers like Tokyo, Nagoya, and Osaka, driving balanced regional growth and integrating industrial hubs. The system's reputation for punctuality (average delays of less than a minute per year) and exceptional safety record (no passenger fatalities due to derailments or collisions in over 60 years of operation) has established it as a benchmark for high-speed rail worldwide, with its technologies exported to countries including Taiwan and India.

The Shinkansen (新幹線), colloquially known in English as the bullet train, is a network of

History

Background

Japan was the first country to construct railway lines dedicated to high-speed travel. Owing to the country's mountainous terrain, the pre-existing rail network was built primarily to a narrow-gauge and followed indirect alignments. These lines could not be readily adapted for sustained high-speed operation because of inherent technical limitations, including lower permissible speeds on curves compared with wider gauges. For example, a curve allowing a maximum speed of 145 km/h on standard-gauge track would typically be limited to around 130 km/h on narrow-gauge track. As a result, Japan had a greater need to construct entirely new high-speed lines than countries whose existing standard- or broad-gauge networks offered greater potential for incremental upgrades.

Early proposal

The term Shinkansen was first formally used in 1940 to describe a proposed standard-gauge passenger and freight railway between Tokyo and Shimonoseki. The line was intended to be operated by steam and electric locomotives at speeds of up to 200 km/h. Over the following three years, the Ministry of Railways developed increasingly ambitious plans to extend the route to Beijing—via a proposed tunnel to Korea—and onward to Singapore, forming part of a projected Greater East Asia Railroad serving the Japanese Empire. The network was also envisioned to connect with the Trans-Siberian Railway and other major trunk lines across Asia. These plans were abandoned in 1943 as Japan's strategic position in World War II deteriorated. Nevertheless, limited construction had already begun, and three tunnels built during this period were later incorporated into the present-day Tōkaidō Shinkansen.

Construction

Following the end of World War II, high-speed rail was forgotten for several years while traffic of passengers and freight steadily increased on the conventional Tōkaidō Main Line along with the reconstruction of Japanese industry and economy. By the mid-1950s the Tōkaidō Line was operating at full capacity, and the Ministry of Railways decided to revisit the Shinkansen project. In 1957, Odakyu Electric Railway introduced its 3000 series SE Romancecar train, setting a world speed record of 145 km/h for a narrow-gauge train when JNR leased a trainset in order to perform high-speed tests.[14] This train gave designers the confidence that they could safely build an even faster standard-gauge train. Thus the first Shinkansen, the 0 series, was built on the success of the Romancecar.

In the 1950s, prevailing opinion in Japan held that railways would soon become obsolete, following trends in the United States toward air travel and highway construction.[15] In contrast, Shinji Sogō, president of Japanese National Railways (JNR), strongly advocated the viability of high-speed rail and played a decisive role in securing political support for the Shinkansen project.[16]

Initial success

The Tōkaidō Shinkansen began service on 1 October 1964, shortly before the opening of the 1964 Tokyo Olympics on 10 October 1964.[21] Prior to the introduction of the high-speed line, conventional limited express services required approximately 6 hours and 40 minutes to travel between Tokyo and Osaka. With the opening of the Shinkansen, the limited-stop Hikari service reduced the journey time to four hours, while the all-stations Kodama service completed the trip in five hours.[22] The first Shinkansen trains, the 0 series, ran at speeds of up to 210 km/h, later increased to 220 km/h, reducing end-to-end trip times on Hikari services three hours and ten minutes.

The new service enabled same-day travel between Tokyo and Osaka, Japan's two largest metropolitan areas, significantly influencing business practices and daily life while generating substantial new passenger demand.

The line was an immediate success, carrying 100 million passengers within three years, a milestone reached on 13 July 1967, and surpassing one billion passengers in 1976. Sixteen-car trainsets were introduced in time for Expo '70 in Osaka.

By 1992, the Tōkaidō Shinkansen carried an average of approximately 23,000 passengers per hour in each direction, making it the world's busiest high-speed rail line at the time.[23]

Network expansion

The Tōkaidō Shinkansen's rapid success prompted an extension westward to Okayama, Hiroshima and Fukuoka (the San'yō Shinkansen), which was completed in 1975.[25] Prime Minister Kakuei Tanaka was an ardent supporter of the Shinkansen, and his government proposed an extensive network paralleling most existing trunk lines. Two new lines, the Tōhoku Shinkansen and Jōetsu Shinkansen, were built following this plan. Many other planned lines were delayed or scrapped entirely as JNR slid into debt throughout the late 1970s, largely because of the high cost of building the Shinkansen network and the effects of the 1973 oil crisis.[26] By 1987, the company was deeply in debt, leading to its privatization.[27]

Development of the Shinkansen by the privatised regional JR companies has continued, with new train models developed, each generally with its own distinctive appearance (such as the 500 series introduced by JR West). Since 2014, Shinkansen trains run regularly at speeds up to 320 km/h on the

Technology

To enable high-speed operation, Shinkansen uses a range of advanced technology compared with conventional rail, achieving not only high speed but also a high standard of safety and comfort. Its success has influenced other railways in the world, demonstrating the importance and advantages of high-speed rail.

Routing

The majority of Shinkansen routes never intersect with slower, narrow-gauge conventional lines. Consequently, the Shinkansen is not affected by slower trains and has the capacity to operate many high-speed trains punctually. Routes are also completely grade separated from road traffic and tracks are strictly off-limits, with penalties against trespassing regulated by law. The routes make extensive use of tunnels and viaducts to go through and over obstacles rather than around them, with a minimum curve radius of 4000 m, although the older Tōkaidō Shinkansen line has a minimum of 2500 m.[32]

While most Shinkansen routes follow this pattern, two exceptions exist. These are the mini-shinkansen lines, which run on conventional lines converted to standard gauge; and the Hokkaido Shinkansen, which shares trackage with narrow-gauge freight trains through the Seikan Tunnel.

Track

The Shinkansen uses standard gauge in contrast to the narrow gauge of most other lines in Japan. Continuous welded rail and swingnose crossing points are employed, eliminating gaps at turnouts and crossings. Long rails are used, joined by expansion joints to minimize gauge fluctuation due to thermal elongation and shrinkage.

A combination of ballasted and slab track is used, with slab track exclusively employed on concrete bed sections such as viaducts and tunnels. Slab track is significantly more cost-effective in tunnel sections, since the lower track height reduces the cross-sectional area of the tunnel, reducing construction costs up to 30%.[33] However, the smaller diameter of Shinkansen tunnels, compared to some other high-speed lines, has resulted in the issue of tunnel boom becoming a concern for residents living close to tunnel portals.

The slab track consists of rails, fasteners and track slabs with a cement asphalt mortar. On the roadbed and in tunnels, circular upstands, measuring 400 – in diameter and 200 mm high, are located at 5-metre intervals. The prefabricated upstands are made of either reinforced concrete or pre-stressed reinforced concrete; they prevent the track slab from moving latitudinally or longitudinally. One track slab weighs approximately 5 tons and is 2220 – wide, 4900 – long and 160 – thick.[34]

Signal system

The Shinkansen employs an ATC (automatic train control) system, eliminating the need for trackside signals. It uses a comprehensive system of automatic train protection.[19] Centralized traffic control manages all train operations, and all tasks relating to train movement, track, station and schedule are networked and computerized.

Electrical systems

The Shinkansen uses a 25 kV AC overhead power supply (20 kV AC on Mini-shinkansen lines) to overcome the limitations of the 1,500 V direct current used on the existing electrified narrow-gauge system. Power is distributed among the train's axles to reduce the heavy axle loads under single power cars.[19] The AC frequency of the power supply for the Tokaido Shinkansen is 60 Hz.

Trains

Shinkansen trains are electric multiple units (EMUs), offering fast acceleration, deceleration and reduced damage to the track because of the use of lighter vehicles compared to locomotives or power cars. The coaches are air-sealed to ensure stable air pressure when entering tunnels at high speed.

Shinkansen trains (excluding mini-Shinkansen) are also built to a larger loading gauge compared to conventional-speed rolling stock.[35] This larger loading gauge permits wider coaches, allowing for 5-abreast seating (2+3) in Standard Class coaches, compared to the more common 4-abreast (2+2) seating usually found elsewhere. On occasions, this wider loading gauge was also used to allow 6-abreast seating (3+3) on certain trains, such as the E1 and E4 series sets. This, combined with a lack of power cars, allows for a higher passenger capacity within a shorter train length. However, since mini-Shinkansen lines are effectively track-regauged conventional lines, the conventional loading gauge for 1,067mm lines still applies on mini-Shinkansen lines.

Traction

The Shinkansen has used EMUs from the outset, with the 0 Series Shinkansen having all axles powered. Other railway manufacturers were traditionally reluctant or unable to use distributed traction configurations (Talgo, the German ICE 2 and the French (and subsequently South Korean) TGV (and KTX-I and KTX-Sancheon) use the locomotive (also known as power car) configuration with the Renfe Class 102 and continues with it for the Talgo AVRIL because it is not possible to use powered bogies as part of Talgo's bogie design, which uses a modified Jacobs bogie with a single axle instead of two and allows the wheels to rotate independently of each other; on the ICE 2, TGV and KTX it is because it easily allows for a high ride quality and less electrical equipment.[36]) In Japan, significant engineering desirability exists for the electric multiple unit configuration. A greater proportion of motored axles permits higher acceleration, so the Shinkansen does not lose as much time if stopping frequently. Shinkansen lines have more stops in proportion to their lengths compared to high-speed lines elsewhere in the world owing to the distribution of major population centers across the country.

Shinkansen lines

Current lines

The main Shinkansen lines are:

The Tōkaidō, San'yō, and Kyūshū lines form a contiguous west- and southbound corridor from Tōkyō station. Train services operate between the Tōkaidō and San'yō lines and between the San'yō and Kyūshū lines, even though they are operated by different companies.

The Tōkaidō and Tōhoku lines are not physically connected at Tokyo Station, as they use different electrification standards, signaling systems, and earthquake-mitigation devices.

All northbound services from Tōkyō station travel along the Tōhoku line until at least Ōmiya before diverging to other Shinkansen or mini-Shinkansen routes.

Mini-Shinkansen

Instead of constructing a new right of way, two further lines known as mini-Shinkansen have been constructed by re-gauging existing sections of conventional lines. The mini-Shinkansen trains are coupled to a Tōhoku Shinkansen train between Tokyo and their start station where they couple/decouple on the platform before continuing their journey. While operating on the mini-Shinkansen lines trains have a maximum speed of 130 km/h.

Non-Shinkansen lines operated with Shinkansen equipment

There are two standard-gauge lines that are not classified as Shinkansen or mini-Shinkansen lines but are operated with Shinkansen equipment, as they use tracks leading to Shinkansen storage yards:

Mini-Shinkansen

Non-Shinkansen lines operated with Shinkansen equipment

There are two standard-gauge lines that are not classified as Shinkansen or mini-Shinkansen lines but are operated with Shinkansen equipment, as they use tracks leading to Shinkansen storage yards:

Lines under construction

The following lines are under construction. These lines except Chūō Shinkansen, called Seibi Shinkansen or planned Shinkansen, are the Shinkansen projects designated in the Basic Plan of the Shinkansen Railway decided by the government.

The Hokkaido Shinkansen from Shin-Hakodate-Hokuto to Sapporo is under construction and scheduled to open by 2038.[38]
The Chūō Shinkansen (Tokyo–Nagoya–Osaka) is the first maglev Shinkansen line, which has been under construction since 2014. JR Central originally aimed to begin commercial service between Tokyo and Nagoya in 2027. However, in 2024, Central Japan Railway Co President Shunsuke Niwa said that due to construction delays a 2027 opening was now impossible and it is not expected to open until at least 2034.[39][31]

Planned lines

The extension of Hokuriku Shinkansen to Osaka is proposed, with the route via Obama and Kyoto selected by the government on 20 December 2016. Construction is proposed to commence in 2030, and take 15 years.
The Nishi Kyushu Shinkansen has been built to full Shinkansen standards between Takeo-Onsen and Nagasaki while the existing narrow-gauge line from Shin-Tosu to Takeo Onsen remains as narrow-gauge track. However, there is a proposal to build the section between Shin-Tosu and Takeo Onsen to full Shinkansen standards. In 2018, the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism released cost-benefit analysis results to compare and contrast full Shinkansen, mini-shinkansen, and Gauge Change Trains for this section.[41]

Proposed lines

Many Shinkansen lines were proposed during the boom of the early 1970s but have yet to be constructed and have subsequently been shelved indefinitely.

In addition, the Basic Plan specified that the Jōetsu Shinkansen should start from Shinjuku, not Tokyo Station, which would have required building an additional 30 km of track between Shinjuku and Ōmiya. While no construction work was ever started, land along the proposed track, including an underground section leading to Shinjuku Station, remains reserved. If capacity on the Tokyo–Ōmiya section proves insufficient at some point, construction of the Shinjuku–Ōmiya link may be reconsidered.

In December 2009, then transport minister Seiji Maehara proposed a bullet train link to Haneda Airport, using an existing spur that connects the Tōkaidō Shinkansen to a train depot. JR Central called the plan "unrealistic" due to tight train schedules on the existing line, but reports said that Maehara wished to continue discussions on the idea.[44] The succeeding minister has not indicated whether this proposal remains supported. While the plan may become more feasible after the opening the Chūō Shinkansen (sometimes referred to as a bypass to the Tokaido Shinkansen) frees up capacity, construction is already underway for other rail improvements between Haneda and Tokyo station expected to be completed prior to the opening of the 2020 Tokyo Olympics, so any potential Shinkansen service would likely offer only marginal benefit. Despite these plans ultimately not being realized (owing in part due to the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic), rail projects in the vicinity of Haneda Airport, including the Haneda Airport Access Line and the

Cancelled lines

The Narita Shinkansen project to connect Tokyo to Narita International Airport, initiated in the 1970s but halted in 1983 after landowner protests, has been officially cancelled and removed from the Basic Plan governing Shinkansen construction. Parts of its planned right-of-way were used by the Narita Sky Access Line which opened in 2010, and the Keiyo Line reused space originally set aside for the Narita Shinkansen terminus at Tokyo Station. Although the Sky Access Line uses standard-gauge track, it was not built to Shinkansen specifications and there are no plans to convert it into a full Shinkansen line.

Rolling stock

Shinkansen trains are up to sixteen cars long, and the longest are over 400 m from end to end. Stations are similarly long to accommodate these trains.

Passenger trains

Tōkaidō and San'yō Shinkansen

0 series – The first Shinkansen trains which entered service in 1964. Maximum operating speed was 220 km/h. More than 3,200 cars were built. Withdrawn in December 2008.
100 series – Entered service in 1985, and featured bilevel cars with restaurant car and compartments. Maximum operating speed was 230 km/h. Later used only on San'yō Shinkansen Kodama services. Withdrawn in March 2012.
300 series – Entered service in 1992, initially on Nozomi services with maximum operating speed of 270 km/h. Withdrawn in March 2012.
500 series – Introduced on Nozomi services in 1997, with an operating speed of 300 km/h. Since 2008, sets have been shortened from 16 to 8 cars for use on San'yō Shinkansen Kodama services.
700 series – 8 and 16-car trainsets introduced in 1999, with maximum operating speed of 285 km/h. The JR Central owned units were withdrawn in March 2020, with the JR West owned units continuing to operate on the San'yō Shinkansen line between Shin-Osaka and Hakata.
N700 series – 16-car trainsets introduced in 2007, with a maximum operating speed of 300 km/h.
N700A series – 16-car trainsets introduced in 2013. An upgraded version of N700 series with improved acceleration/deceleration and quieter traction motors. All N700 series sets have been converted to N700A.
N700S series – 16-car trainsets introduced in 2020. An evolution of the N700A series.

Kyushu and Nishi Kyushu Shinkansen

800 series – 6-car trainsets introduced in March 2004 on the Kyushu Shinkansen with a maximum speed of 260 km/h.
N700-7000/8000 series – 8-car trainsets introduced in March 2011 on the Kyushu Shinkansen with a maximum speed of 300 km/h.
N700S-8000 series – 6-car trainsets introduced in 2022 on the Nishi Kyushu Shinkansen with a maximum speed of 260 km/h.

Tōhoku, Jōetsu, Hokuriku and Hokkaido Shinkansen

200 series – The first type introduced on the Tōhoku and Jōetsu Shinkansen in 1982. The first Shinkansen type designed for cold-weather operation, with a maximum operating speed of 240 km/h. Trainsets were operated in 10-, 12-, and 16-car formations; the final configuration was 10 cars. Withdrawn from service in April 2013.
E1 series – Double-deck 12-car trainsets introduced in 1994 for use on the Tōhoku and Jōetsu Shinkansen. They had a maximum operating speed of 240 km/h and were withdrawn in September 2012.
E2 series – Introduced in 1997, operating in 8- and 10-car formations. The type has a maximum operating speed of 275 km/h and remains in service on the Tōhoku Shinkansen. It was previously used on the Hokuriku and Jōetsu Shinkansen.
E4 series – Double-deck 8-car trainsets introduced in 1997 and used on the Tōhoku, Jōetsu, and Hokuriku Shinkansen. Maximum operating speed was 240 km/h. The type was withdrawn from service in October 2021.
E5 series – 10-car trainsets introduced in March 2011, operating primarily on the Tōhoku Shinkansen. The type has a maximum operating speed of 320 km/h.
H5 series – A cold-weather derivative of the E5 series, introduced from March 2016 for use primarily on the Hokkaido Shinkansen.[53][54]

Yamagata and Akita Shinkansen

400 series – The first mini-Shinkansen train type, introduced in 1992 for services on the Yamagata Shinkansen. It had a maximum operating speed of 240 km/h and was withdrawn from service in April 2010.
E3 series – Introduced in 1997 for the Akita Shinkansen, with a maximum operating speed of 275 km/h. Additional trainsets were built for use on the Yamagata Shinkansen. From 2014 onward, the type has been used exclusively on the Yamagata Shinkansen.
E6 series – Introduced in March 2013 for the Akita Shinkansen, featuring a maximum operating speed of 320 km/h.
E8 series – Introduced in March 2024 as the replacement for the E3 series on the Yamagata Shinkansen. The type has a maximum operating speed of 300 km/h.

Tōkaidō and San'yō Shinkansen

0 series – The first Shinkansen trains which entered service in 1964. Maximum operating speed was 220 km/h. More than 3,200 cars were built. Withdrawn in December 2008.
100 series – Entered service in 1985, and featured bilevel cars with restaurant car and compartments. Maximum operating speed was 230 km/h. Later used only on San'yō Shinkansen Kodama services. Withdrawn in March 2012.
300 series – Entered service in 1992, initially on Nozomi services with maximum operating speed of 270 km/h. Withdrawn in March 2012.
500 series – Introduced on Nozomi services in 1997, with an operating speed of 300 km/h. Since 2008, sets have been shortened from 16 to 8 cars for use on San'yō Shinkansen Kodama services.
700 series – 8 and 16-car trainsets introduced in 1999, with maximum operating speed of 285 km/h. The JR Central owned units were withdrawn in March 2020, with the JR West owned units continuing to operate on the San'yō Shinkansen line between Shin-Osaka and Hakata.
N700 series – 16-car trainsets introduced in 2007, with a maximum operating speed of 300 km/h.
N700A series – 16-car trainsets introduced in 2013. An upgraded version of N700 series with improved acceleration/deceleration and quieter traction motors. All N700 series sets have been converted to N700A.
N700S series

Kyushu and Nishi Kyushu Shinkansen

800 series – 6-car trainsets introduced in March 2004 on the Kyushu Shinkansen with a maximum speed of 260 km/h.
N700-7000/8000 series – 8-car trainsets introduced in March 2011 on the Kyushu Shinkansen with a maximum speed of 300 km/h.
N700S-8000 series – 6-car trainsets introduced in 2022 on the Nishi Kyushu Shinkansen with a maximum speed of 260 km/h.

Tōhoku, Jōetsu, Hokuriku and Hokkaido Shinkansen

200 series – The first type introduced on the Tōhoku and Jōetsu Shinkansen in 1982. The first Shinkansen type designed for cold-weather operation, with a maximum operating speed of 240 km/h. Trainsets were operated in 10-, 12-, and 16-car formations; the final configuration was 10 cars. Withdrawn from service in April 2013.
E1 series – Double-deck 12-car trainsets introduced in 1994 for use on the Tōhoku and Jōetsu Shinkansen. They had a maximum operating speed of 240 km/h and were withdrawn in September 2012.
E2 series – Introduced in 1997, operating in 8- and 10-car formations. The type has a maximum operating speed of 275 km/h and remains in service on the Tōhoku Shinkansen. It was previously used on the Hokuriku and Jōetsu Shinkansen.
E4 series – Double-deck 8-car trainsets introduced in 1997 and used on the Tōhoku, Jōetsu, and Hokuriku Shinkansen. Maximum operating speed was 240 km/h. The type was withdrawn from service in October 2021.
E5 series – 10-car trainsets introduced in March 2011, operating primarily on the Tōhoku Shinkansen. The type has a maximum operating speed of 320 km/h.
H5 series – A cold-weather derivative of the E5 series, introduced from March 2016 for use primarily on the Hokkaido Shinkansen.[53][54]

Yamagata and Akita Shinkansen

400 series – The first mini-Shinkansen train type, introduced in 1992 for services on the Yamagata Shinkansen. It had a maximum operating speed of 240 km/h and was withdrawn from service in April 2010.
E3 series – Introduced in 1997 for the Akita Shinkansen, with a maximum operating speed of 275 km/h. Additional trainsets were built for use on the Yamagata Shinkansen. From 2014 onward, the type has been used exclusively on the Yamagata Shinkansen.
E6 series – Introduced in March 2013 for the Akita Shinkansen, featuring a maximum operating speed of 320 km/h.
E8 series – Introduced in March 2024 as the replacement for the E3 series on the Yamagata Shinkansen. The type has a maximum operating speed of 300 km/h.

Experimental trains

Class 1000 – 1961
Class 951 – 1969
Class 961 – 1973
Class 962 – 1979
500-900 series "WIN350" – 1992
Class 952/953 "STAR21" – 1992
Class 955 "300X" – 1994
Gauge Change Train – 1998 to present
Class E954 "Fastech 360S" – 2004
Class E955 "Fastech 360Z" – 2005
Class E956 "ALFA-X" – 2019

Maintenance vehicles

911 Type diesel locomotive
912 Type diesel locomotive
DD18 Type diesel locomotive
DD19 Type diesel locomotive
941 Type (rescue train)
921 Type (track inspection car)
922 Type (Doctor Yellow sets T1, T2, T3)
923 Type (Doctor Yellow sets T4, T5)
925 Type (Doctor Yellow sets S1, S2)
E926 Type (East i)

Reliability

Punctuality

The Shinkansen is very reliable thanks to several factors, including its near-total separation from slower traffic. In 2016, JR Central reported that the Shinkansen's average delay from schedule per train was 24 seconds. This includes delays due to uncontrollable causes, such as natural disasters.[57]

Safety record

Over the Shinkansen's 60-plus year history, carrying over 10 billion passengers, there have been no passenger fatalities due to train accidents such as derailments or collisions,[58] despite frequent earthquakes and typhoons. Injuries and a single fatality have been caused by doors closing on passengers or their belongings; attendants are employed at platforms to prevent such accidents.[59] There have, however, been suicides by passengers jumping both from and in front of moving trains.[60][61]

There have been two derailments of Shinkansen trains in passenger service. The first one occurred during the Chūetsu earthquake on 23 October 2004. Eight of ten cars of the Toki No. 325 train on the Jōetsu Shinkansen derailed near Nagaoka Station in Nagaoka, Niigata. There were no casualties among the 154 passengers.[62]

Another derailment happened on 2 March 2013 on the Akita Shinkansen when the Komachi No. 25 train derailed in blizzard conditions in Daisen, Akita. No passengers were injured.[63]

In the event of an earthquake, an earthquake detection system can bring the train to a stop very quickly; newer trainsets are lighter and have stronger braking systems, allowing for quicker stopping. New anti-derailment devices were installed on tracks after analysis of the Jōetsu derailment.[64][65]

Several months after the exposure of the Kobe Steel falsification scandal, which is among the suppliers of high-strength steel for Shinkansen trainsets, cracks were found upon inspection of a single bogie, and removed from service on 11 December 2017.[66]

On 23 January 2024, a massive power outage struck the Tohoku, Hokuriku and Joetsu Shinkansen lines, resulting in the cancellation of 283 trains and affecting about 120,000 passengers. JR East said that the outage was caused by a Kagayaki service train touching an overhead power cable which was left dangling after the metal rod supporting it fractured between Omiya Station in Saitama and Ueno Station in Tokyo. The incident damaged the train's pantographs and a window,[67] while two railway employees were hospitalized following an explosion that occurred at the site during repairs.[68] Most Shinkansen services were restored the following morning.[69]

In September 2024 and March 2025, two decoupling incidents took place on trains servicing the Tohoku line.[70]

On 15 August 2025, a burning smell was noticed by crew members aboard a Kodama service of the Tokaido Shinkansen. At the time, the N700S set was travelling between Maibara and Gifu-Hashima station, where the train was stopped and white smoke was found coming from underneath car number 9. The fire department was called, and identified a fire on the underside of the vehicle. There were no reported injuries, but the 250 passengers were forced to disembark and take a later Nozomi service.[71][72]

Effects

Economics

The Shinkansen has had a significant beneficial effect on Japan's business, economy, society, environment and culture beyond mere construction and operational contributions.[73] The resultant time savings alone from switching from a conventional to a high-speed network have been estimated at 400 million hours, and the system has an economic contribution of ¥500 billion per year.[73] That does not include the savings from reduced reliance on imported fuel, which also has national security benefits. Shinkansen lines, particularly in the very crowded coastal Taiheiyō Belt megalopolis, met two primary goals:

However, upon the introduction of the 1973 Basic Plan the initial prudence in developing Shinkansen lines gave way to political considerations to extend the mode to far less populated regions of the country, partly to spread these benefits beyond the key centres of Kanto and Kinki. Although in some cases regional extension was frustrated by protracted land acquisition (sometimes influenced by the cancellation of the Narita Shinkansen following fierce protests by locals), over time Shinkansen lines were built to relatively sparsely populated areas with the intent to disperse the population away from the capital.

Such expansion had a significant cost. JNR, the national railway company, was already burdened with subsidizing unprofitable rural and regional railways. It then assumed Shinkansen construction debt until the government corporation eventually owed some ¥28 trillion, contributing to it being regionalised and privatized in 1987.[74] The privatized JRs eventually paid ¥9.2 trillion to acquire JNR's Shinkansen network.[73]

Following privatization, the JR group of companies have continued Shinkansen network expansion to less populated areas, but with far more flexibility to spin-off unprofitable railways or cut costs than in JNR days. An important factor is the post bubble zero interest-rate policy that allows JR to borrow huge sums of capital without significant concern regarding repayment timing.

A UCLA study found that the presence of a Shinkansen line had improved housing affordability by making it more realistic for lower-income city workers to live in exurban areas much further away from the city, which tend to have cheaper housing options. That in turn helps the city to "decentralise" and reduce city property prices.[75]

Shinkansen trains reduced the congestion burden on regional transportation by increasing throughput on a minimal land footprint, therefore being economically preferable compared to modes (such as airports or highways) common in less densely populated regions of the world.
As rail was already the primary urban mode of passenger travel, from that perspective it was akin to a sunk cost; there was not a significant number of motorists to convince to switch modes. The initial megalopolitan Shinkansen lines were profitable and paid for themselves. Connectivity rejuvenated rural towns such as Kakegawa that would otherwise be too distant from major cities.[73]

Environment

Traveling by the Tokaido Shinkansen from Tokyo to Osaka produces only around 16% of the carbon dioxide of the equivalent journey by car, a saving of 15,000 tons of per year.[73]

Ridership

Annual

* The sum of the ridership of individual lines does not equal the ridership of the system because a single rider may be counted multiple times when using multiple lines, to get proper ridership figures for a system, in the above case, is only counted once.

** Only refers to 6 days of operation: 26 March 2016 (opening date) to 31 March 2016 (end of FY2015).

Until 2011, Japan's high-speed rail system had the highest annual patronage of any system worldwide, when China's HSR network's patronage reached 1.7 billion and became the world's highest.[80][81]

Cumulative comparison

Notes:

Cumulative ridership since October 1964 is over 5 billion passengers for the Tokaido Shinkansen Line alone and 10 billion passengers for Japan's entire shinkansen network.[80] Nevertheless, China's share is increasing fast, as close to 9.5 billion passengers in that nation have been served by the end of 2018 and is projected to pass Japan's cumulative numbers by as early as 2020.[87]

Data in italics includes extrapolated estimations where data is missing. Turkey and Russia data here is included in "Europe" column, rather than split between Asia and Europe. Only systems with 200 km/h or higher regular service speed are considered.
"Shinkansen share(%)" refers to percent of Shinkansen ridership (including fully assembled exported trainsets) as a percent of "World" total. Currently this only pertains to Taiwan, but may change if Japan exports Shinkansen to other nations.
"Shinkansen" column does not include Shinkansen knock down kits made in Japan exported to China for assembly, or any derivative system thereof in China
"Asia (other)" column refers to sum of riderships of all HSR systems geographically in Asia that do not use Shinkansen. (this data excludes Russia and Turkey, which geographically have parts in Asia but for sake of convenience included in Europe column)
For 2013, Japan's Ministry of Transport has not updated data, nor is summed European data available (even 2012 data is very rough), however Taiwan ridership is 47.49 million[84] and Korea with 54.5 million[85] and China with 672 million in 2013.[86]

Passenger-kilometres

† Indicates that multiple sources are available, and report different values

Future

Speed increases

Tōhoku Shinkansen

E5 series trains, capable of up to 320 km/h, initially limited to 300 km/h, were introduced on the Tōhoku Shinkansen in March 2011. Operation at the maximum speed of 320 km/h between Utsunomiya and Morioka on this route commenced on 16 March 2013. It reduced the journey time to around 3 hours for trains from Tokyo to Shin-Aomori, a distance of 674 km.

Extensive trials using the Fastech 360 test trains have shown that operation at 360 km/h is not feasible because of problems of noise pollution (particularly tunnel boom), overhead wire wear, and braking distances. On 30 October 2012, JR East announced that it was pursuing research and development to increase speeds to 360 km/h on the Tohoku Shinkansen by 2020.[93] The ALFA-X is undergoing testing.

Hokkaido Shinkansen

Upon commencement of services in 2016, the maximum speed on the approximately 82 km dual gauge section of the Hokkaido Shinkansen (including through the Seikan Tunnel) was 140 km/h, which was increased to 160 km/h by March 2019.[94] There are approximately 50 freight trains using the dual gauge section each day, so limiting the travel of such trains to times outside of Shinkansen services is not an option. Because of this and other weather-related factors cited by JR East and JR Hokkaido, the fastest journey time between Tokyo and Shin-Hakodate-Hokuto is 3 hours, 57 minutes.

During the 2020–21 New Year Holiday period, certain Shinkansen services were operated at 210 km/h on the dual gauge section and was proposed again for the Golden Week Holiday period from 3–6 May 2021, due to fewer freight trains operating.[94]

To achieve the full benefit of Shinkansen trains travelling on the dual gauge section at 260 km/h (the maximum speed proposed through the tunnel), alternatives are being considered, such as a system to automatically slow Shinkansen trains to 200 km/h when passing narrow-gauge trains, and/or loading freight trains onto special "Train on Train" standard-gauge trains (akin to a covered piggyback flatcar train) built to withstand the shock wave of oncoming Shinkansen trains traveling at full speed. This would enable a travel time from Tokyo to Shin-Hakodate-Hokuto of 3 hours and 45 minutes, a saving of 12 minutes.

Tōhoku Shinkansen

Hokkaido Shinkansen

Hokuriku extension

The Hokuriku Shinkansen was extended from Kanazawa to Tsuruga on 16 March 2024.[95]

There are further plans to extend the line from Tsuruga to Osaka, with the Obama-Kyoto route chosen by the government on 20 December 2016,[96] after a government committee investigated the five nominated routes.[97]

Construction of the extension beyond Tsuruga is not expected to commence before 2030, with a projected 15-year construction period. On 6 March 2017 the government committee announced the chosen route from Kyoto to Shin-Osaka is to be via Kyotanabe, with a station at Matsuiyamate on the Katamachi Line.[98][99]

Abandoned interim Gauge Change plans

To extend the benefits of the Hokuriku Shinkansen to stations west of Tsuruga before the line to Osaka is completed, JR West was working in partnership with Talgo on the development of a Gauge Change Train (CGT) capable of operating under both the 25 kV AC electrification used on the Shinkansen and the 1.5 kV DC system employed on conventional lines. A trial of the proposed bogie was undertaken on a purpose-built 180 m gauge-changer at Tsuruga, but it was unsuccessful and the plans were abandoned.[100]

Tohoku extension/Hokkaido Shinkansen

The Hokkaido Shinkansen forms an extension of the Tohoku Shinkansen north of Shin-Aomori to Shin-Hakodate-Hokuto Station (north of the Hokkaido city of Hakodate) through the Seikan Tunnel, which was converted to dual gauge as part of the project, opening in March 2016.

JR Hokkaido is extending the Hokkaido Shinkansen from Shin-Hakodate-Hokuto to Sapporo to open by 2038. The 211.3 km extension will be approximately 76% in tunnels, including major tunnels such as Toshima (~32.675 km) Oshima (~26.5 km), Teine (~26.5 km) and Shiribeshi (~18 km).[101]

Although an extension from Sapporo to Asahikawa was included in the 1973 list of planned lines, at this time it is unknown whether the Hokkaido Shinkansen will be extended beyond Sapporo.

Nishi Kyushu Shinkansen

JR Kyushu opened the Nishi Kyushu Shinkansen from Takeo-Onsen to Nagasaki (built to full Shinkansen standard) on 23 September 2022, with the existing narrow-gauge section between Shin-Tosu and Takeo Onsen proposed to be upgraded as part of this project.

This proposal initially involved introducing Gauge Change Trains (GCT) travelling from Hakata to Shin-Tosu (26.3 km) on the existing Kyushu Shinkansen line, then passing through a specific gauge changing (standard to narrow) section of track linking to the existing Nagasaki Main Line, along which it would travel to Hizen Yamaguchi (37.6 km), then onto the Sasebo Line to Takeo-Onsen (13.7 km), where another gauge changing section (narrow to standard) would lead onto the final Shinkansen line to Nagasaki (66 km). However, significant technical issues with the axles of the GCT resulted in its cancellation.

On 28 October 2020, JR Kyushu announced it would utilize a 6-car version of the N700S for the isolated Shinkansen section from Nagasaki, with 'cross platform' change to a relay service at Takeo Onsen station to connect to Hakata.[102] JR Kyushu also announced the service would continue to use the name 'Kamome' for the Hakata-Nagasaki service, which has been in use since 1961.[103]

The Shinkansen line shortens the distance between Hakata and Nagasaki by 6.2% (9.6 km), and while only 64% of the route is built to full Shinkansen standards, it eliminated the slowest sections of the previous narrow-gauge route.

Maglev (Chūō Shinkansen)

Maglev trains have been undertaking test runs on the Yamanashi test track since 1997, running at speeds of over 500 km/h. As a result of this extensive testing, maglev technology is almost ready for public usage.[105] An extension of the test track from 18.4 to 42.8 km was completed in June 2013, enabling extended high-speed running trials to commence in August 2013. This section will be incorporated into the Chūō Shinkansen which will eventually link Tokyo to Osaka. Construction of the Shinagawa to Nagoya section began in 2014, with 86% of the 286 km route to be in tunnels. Plans were approved in 2017 for the Chūō Shinkansen to begin at Tokyo Station, rather than Shinagawa Station as initially planned due to difficulties in securing land.[106]

JR Central originally aimed to begin commercial service between Tokyo and Nagoya in 2027. However, in 2024, Central Japan Railway Co President Shunsuke Niwa said that due to construction delays a 2027 opening was now impossible and it is not expected to open until at least 2034.[39][31]

Mini-Shinkansen

Mini-shinkansen (ミニ新幹線) is the name given to the routes where former narrow-gauge lines have been converted to standard gauge to allow Shinkansen trains to travel to cities without the expense of constructing full Shinkansen standard lines.

Two mini-shinkansen routes have been constructed: the Yamagata Shinkansen and Akita Shinkansen. Shinkansen services to these lines traverse the Tohoku Shinkansen line from Tokyo before branching off to traditional main lines. On both the Yamagata/Shinjo and Akita lines, the narrow-gauge lines were regauged, resulting in the local services being operated by standard-gauge versions of suburban/interurban rolling stock. On the Akita line between Omagari and Akita, one of the two narrow-gauge lines was regauged, and a section of the remaining narrow-gauge line is dual gauge, providing opportunity for Shinkansen services to pass each other without stopping.

The maximum speed on these lines is 130 km/h, however the overall travel time to/from Tokyo is improved due to the elimination of the need for passengers to change trains at Fukushima and Morioka respectively.

As the loading gauge (size of the train that can travel on a line) was not altered when the rail gauge was widened, only Shinkansen trains specially built for these routes can travel on the lines. They are the E3 and E6 series trains.

Whilst no further Mini-shinkansen routes have been proposed, it remains an option for providing Shinkansen services to cities on the narrow-gauge network.

Proposed Ou Base Tunnel

Construction of a base tunnel on the Yamagata Shinkansen is proposed, with JR East having undertaken a survey of a planned route from Niwasaka to Sekine, just south of Yonezawa station.[111] 23.1 km of the proposed 24.9 km line would be in tunnel, mostly to the north of the existing 88 km Fukushima – Yamagata section. To be built on an improved alignment, the tunnel would lower journey times between Fukushima and Yamagata by ~10 min due to a proposed line speed of up to 200 km/h.

The tunnel would avoid the Itaya Toge pass through the Ōu Mountains west of Fukushima. Gradients range from 3.0% to 3.8% and the line reaches an altitude of 548 m. The curvature and steep grades of the current line limit train speeds to 55 km/h or less, and it is vulnerable to heavy rain and snowfall as well as high winds. Between 2011 and 2017 a total of 410 Yamagata mini-Shinkansen services were either suspended or delayed, and 40% of these incidents occurred on the line over the Itaya Toge pass.

If the ¥150 billion base tunnel is authorised, detailed design would take five years and construction another 15 years. The cost could increase by ¥12 billion if the tunnel were to be built with a cross-section large enough to permit the line to be upgraded to the full Shinkansen loading gauge.

Gauge Change Train

This is the name for the concept of using a single train that is designed to travel on both narrow-gauge railway lines and the standard gauge used by Shinkansen train services in Japan. The trucks/bogies of the Gauge Change Train (GCT) allow the wheels to be unlocked from the axles, narrowed or widened as necessary, and then relocked. This allows a GCT to traverse both standard-gauge and narrow-gauge tracks without the expense of regauging lines.

Three test trains were constructed, with the second set having completed reliability trials on the Yosan Line east of Matsuyama (in Shikoku) in September 2013. The third set was undertaking gauge changing trials at Shin-Yatsushiro Station (on Kyushu), commencing in 2014 for a proposed three-year period, however testing was suspended in December 2014 after accumulating approximating 33,000 km, following the discovery of defective thrust bearing oil seals on the bogies.[112] The train was being trialled between Kumamoto, travelling on the narrow-gauge line to Shin-Yatsushiro, where a gauge changer was installed, so the GCT could be trialled on the Shinkansen line to Kagoshima. It was anticipated the train would travel approximately 600,000 km over the three-year trial.

A new "full standard" Shinkansen line was opened in 2022 from Takeo Onsen to Nagasaki, with the Shin-Tosu – Takeo Onsen section of the Nishi Kyushu Shinkansen remaining narrow gauge. GCTs were proposed to provide Shinkansen service from the line's opening, however with the GCT being cancelled, JR Kyushu announced it would provide an interim 'relay' service.[102]

Competition with air

Compared with air transport, the Shinkansen has several advantages, including scheduling frequency and flexibility, punctual operation, comfortable seats, lower carbon emissions, and convenient city-centre terminals.

Shinkansen fares are generally competitive with domestic air fares. From a speed and convenience perspective, the Shinkansen's market share has surpassed that of air travel for journeys of less than 750 km, while air and rail remain highly competitive with each other in the 800 – range and air has a higher market share for journeys of more than 1,000 km.[113]

During snowy weather, the Shinkansen is known to face fewer delays compared to air travel due to snow. One study done in 2016 concluded that the Tohoku Shinkansen between Tokyo and Aomori had substantially fewer days with delays longer than 30 minutes compared to air travel.[114]

Tokyo – Nagoya (342 km), Tokyo – Sendai (325 km), Tokyo – Hanamaki (Morioka) (496 km), Tokyo – Niigata (300 km): There were air services between these cities, but they were withdrawn after Shinkansen services started. Shinkansen runs between these cities in about two hours or less.
Tokyo – Osaka (515 km): The Shinkansen is dominant because of fast (2 hours 22 minutes) and frequent service (up to 17 trains per hour spaced 3 minutes apart during peak season, including 12 Nozomi services[115]), holding around an 85% vs 15% lead in market share against air travel.[116][117]
Tokyo – Okayama (676 km), Tokyo – Hiroshima (821 km): Shinkansen is reported to have increased its market share from ~40% to ~60% over the last decade.[118] The Shinkansen takes about three to four hours and there are Nozomi trains every 30 minutes, but airlines may provide cheaper fares, attracting price-conscious passengers.
Tokyo – Fukuoka (1,069 km): The Shinkansen takes about five hours on the fastest Nozomi, and discount carriers have made air travel far cheaper, so most people choose air. Additionally, unlike many cities, there is very little convenience advantage for the location of the Shinkansen stations of the two cities as Fukuoka Airport is located near the central Tenjin district, and the Fukuoka City Subway's Airport Line connects the Airport and Tenjin via Hakata Station and Haneda Airport is similarly conveniently located.
Osaka – Fukuoka (554 km): The Shinkansen dominates with approximately 85% market share against air travel between the Keihanshin area and Fukuoka.[119] From Shin-Osaka, Nozomi and Mizuho services take about two and a half hours, and the JR West Hikari Rail Star or JR West/JR Kyushu Sakura trains operate twice an hour, taking about 2 hours and 40 minutes between the two cities.
Tokyo – Aomori (675 km): The fastest Shinkansen service between these cities is 3 hours. JAL is reported to have reduced the size of planes servicing this route since the Shinkansen extension opened in 2010.[118]
Tokyo – Hokuriku (345 km): The fastest Shinkansen service between these areas is 21/2 hours. ANA is reported to have reduced the number of services from Tokyo to Kanazawa and Toyama from 6 to 4 per day since the Shinkansen extension opened in 2015. The share of passengers travelling this route by air is reported to have dropped from 40% to 10% in the same period.[97]

Outside Japan

Railways using Shinkansen technology are not limited to those in Japan.

Existing

Taiwan

The 700T Series, operated by Taiwan High Speed Rail, is the first operational Shinkansen type exported outside Japan. Based on the 700 series, they were built by Kawasaki Heavy Industries and are operated as 12-car sets. They first entered service in January 2007, with a maximum speed of 300 km/h.

A 0 Series Shinkansen front car which was used in Taiwan for testing is on display at Tainan HSR station.

China

The China Railway CRH2 is based on the E2-1000 series design. The trains are built by CSR Sifang Loco & Rolling stocks corporation under a license purchased in 2004 from a consortium formed of Kawasaki Heavy Industries, Mitsubishi Electric Corporation, and Hitachi. Trial services started in January 2007.

United Kingdom

The British Rail Class 395, operated by Southeastern, incorporates technology from the 400 Series Shinkansen.[120] Part of the Hitachi A-Train AT300 InterCity family, twenty nine sets were ordered from Hitachi for commuter services on the High Speed 1 line. The trains entered service from June 2009 and operate at a maximum speed of 140 mph (225 km/h).[121][122]

A retired 0 Series Shinkansen front car was donated to the National Railway Museum, in 2000.[123]

Taiwan

A 0 Series Shinkansen front car which was used in Taiwan for testing is on display at Tainan HSR station.

China

United Kingdom

A retired 0 Series Shinkansen front car was donated to the National Railway Museum, in 2000.[123]

Under construction

India

In December 2015, India and Japan signed an agreement for the construction of India's first high speed rail link connecting Mumbai to Ahmedabad, the intention being to initially operate imported E5 Series Shinkansen sets on the line. To be funded primarily through Japanese soft loans, the link was expected to cost up to US$18.6 billion and operational by 2024.[124][125] The project has been delayed by several years, and forecast costs have risen. A tender for 24 modified E5 sets was issued in 2023, though the resulting offers were not taken up by India, who now desire E10 sets, for delivery in the 2030s.[126][127] The Japanese Government agreed to gift one end of life E3 and E5 sets in 2025, with delivery in 2026.[128]

India

Under negotiation

United States

In 2014, it was announced that Texas Central Railway would build a ~300 mi long line using the N700 series rolling stock.[129] The trains are proposed to operate at over 320 km/h.[130]

United States

In 2014, it was announced that Texas Central Railway would build a ~300 mi long line using the N700 series rolling stock.[129] The trains are proposed to operate at over 320 km/h.[130]

Proposed subject to funding

Thailand

Japan will provide Shinkansen technology for a high-speed rail link between Bangkok and Chiang Mai under an agreement reached with Thailand on 27 May 2015. Total project costs are estimated in excess of 1 trillion yen ($8.1 billion). Several hurdles remain, however, including securing the funding.[131]

Thailand

Potential opportunities

Australia

A private organization dedicated to aiding the Australian Government in delivering high speed rail, Consolidated Land and Rail Australia, has considered purchasing Shinkansen technology or SC Maglev rolling stock for a potential Melbourne-Canberra-Sydney-Brisbane line.[132]

In 2023, the High Speed Rail Authority was established by the Government. The Government committed AU$500 million to progress planning for a future high speed rail network – of this, AU$78.8 million was allocated to deliver the business case for the Sydney to Newcastle section, which is expected to be provided to the Government by the end of 2024.[133][134] Japan Railways Group and Hitachi attended an industry briefing on 27 August 2024.[135]

Australia

Ireland

As part of the Ireland 2040 infrastructural upgrade scheme, a high-speed rail network using Shinkansen technology is being investigated along the Cork-Dublin-Belfast axis, spanning the island of Ireland from north to south.

United States and Canada

The U.S. Federal Railroad Administration was in talks with a number of countries concerning high-speed rail, notably Japan, France and Spain. On 16 May 2009, FRA Deputy Chief Karen Rae expressed hope that Japan would offer its technical expertise to Canada and the United States. Transportation Secretary Ray LaHood indicated interest in test riding the Japanese Shinkansen in 2009.[136][137]

On 1 June 2009, JR Central Chairman, Yoshiyuki Kasai, announced plans to export both the N700 Series Shinkansen high-speed train system and the SCMaglev to international export markets, including the United States and Canada.[138]

Brazil

Japan had promoted its Shinkansen technology to the Government of Brazil for use on the once planned high-speed rail set to link Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo and Campinas.[139] On 14 November 2008, Japanese Deputy Prime Minister Tarō Asō and Brazilian President Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva talked about this rail project. President Lula asked a consortium of Japanese companies to participate in the bidding process. Prime Minister Aso concurred on the bilateral cooperation to improve rail infrastructure in Brazil, including the Rio–São Paulo–Campinas high-speed rail line.[140] The Japanese consortium included the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism, Mitsui & Co., Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, Kawasaki Heavy Industries and Toshiba.[141][142]

Vietnam

Vietnam Railways was considering the use of Shinkansen technology for high-speed rail between the capital Hanoi and the southern commercial hub of Ho Chi Minh City, according to the Nihon Keizai Shimbun, citing an interview with Chief Executive Officer Nguyen Huu Bang. The Vietnamese government had already given basic approval for the Shinkansen system, although it still requires financing and formal consent from the prime minister. Vietnam rejected a funding proposal in 2010, so funding for the $56 billion project is uncertain. Hanoi was exploring additional Japanese funding Official Development Assistance as well as funds from the World Bank and Asian Development Bank. The 1560 km line would replace the current colonial-era rail line. Vietnam hoped to launch high-speed trains by 2020 and planned to start by building three sections, including a 90 km stretch between the central coastal cities of Da Nang and Huế, seen as potentially most profitable. Vietnam Railways had sent engineers to Central Japan Railway Company for technical training.[143][144]

WorldBrand briefing

Technical and Operational Innovations

Cultural and Economic Impact

Etymology

History

Background

Early proposal

Construction

Initial success

Network expansion

Technology

Routing

Track

Signal system

Electrical systems

Trains

Traction

Shinkansen lines

Current lines

Mini-Shinkansen

Non-Shinkansen lines operated with Shinkansen equipment

Mini-Shinkansen

Non-Shinkansen lines operated with Shinkansen equipment

Lines under construction

Planned lines

Proposed lines

Cancelled lines

Services

Tōkaidō, San'yō and Kyushu Shinkansen

Tōhoku, Hokkaido, Yamagata and Akita Shinkansen

Rolling stock

Passenger trains

Tōkaidō and San'yō Shinkansen

Kyushu and Nishi Kyushu Shinkansen

Tōhoku, Jōetsu, Hokuriku and Hokkaido Shinkansen

Yamagata and Akita Shinkansen

Tōkaidō and San'yō Shinkansen

Kyushu and Nishi Kyushu Shinkansen

Tōhoku, Jōetsu, Hokuriku and Hokkaido Shinkansen

Yamagata and Akita Shinkansen

Experimental trains

Maintenance vehicles

Speed records

Traditional rail

Reliability

Punctuality

Safety record

Effects

Economics

Environment

Challenges

Noise pollution

Earthquake

Heavy snow

Ridership

Annual

Cumulative comparison

Passenger-kilometres

Future

Speed increases

Tōhoku Shinkansen

Hokkaido Shinkansen

Tōhoku Shinkansen

Hokkaido Shinkansen

Hokuriku extension

Abandoned interim Gauge Change plans

Tohoku extension/Hokkaido Shinkansen

Nishi Kyushu Shinkansen

Maglev (Chūō Shinkansen)

Mini-Shinkansen

Proposed Ou Base Tunnel

Proposed Ou Base Tunnel

Gauge Change Train

Competition with air

Outside Japan

Existing

Taiwan

China

United Kingdom

Taiwan